## **Hypothesis**

HYPOTHESIS #1 If we measure the voltage of an apple, potato and a lemon, then lemon will produce the most voltage because it has higher concentration of acid (acidity).

HYPOTHESIS #2 If we measure the current across the lemon battery, then the current measured will be less then a normal battery because of the high internal resistance of the lemon battery(food battery) compared to standard AAA batteries.

HYPOTHESIS #3 If we had enough food connected in series producing high voltage, then we should be able to light the LED, power the small clock, beeper and motor because higher voltage should be able to power the gadgets.

• Background Research

As we started this project, we had to understand a number of basic concepts about electricity, battery, scientific principles, measurement techniques, sources of error, choice of electrodes, food battery candidates, and potential future applications of our experiments. This background research section addresses those topics that we researched and was helpful in our project.

1. What is Electricity?

Electricity is the flow of tiny particles called electrons through materials like wires. You can't see electrons because they're incredibly small, but you can see what they do when they flow, like lighting up a bulb or making a motor spin! Think of electricity like water flowing through a pipe. Just as water flows from high pressure to low pressure, electrons flow from one place to another, creating what we call electric current. Figure 2.1 Basics Of Electricity To understand how electricity works, you need to know about three important things: Figure 2.2  : Electricity Elements

• Voltage (V) - The pushing force (like water pressure)
• Current (I) - The amount of flow (like how much water flows)

• Resistance (R) - What slows down the flow (like a narrow pipe)

• How Batteries Work?

Batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy through oxidation–reduction reactions occurring at two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte. At the anode, oxidation releases electrons, while at the cathode, reduction consumes electrons, creating an electric current in the external circuit. A battery is like a jar of chemicals that stores energy. When you connect a battery to something like a flashlight, the chemicals inside react with each other and create electricity! According to Britannica Kids, batteries store energy as chemical energy, and when the battery is used, this chemical energy changes into electrical energy that can power devices. Figure 2.3 Battery working Every battery has three main parts: Anode (Negative Terminal - marked with a minus sign)

• This is where electrons build up and want to escape
• Usually made of zinc
• Marked with a "-" sign

Cathode (Positive Terminal - marked with a plus sign)

• This is where electrons want to go
• Usually made of materials like manganese dioxide or copper
• Marked with a "+" sign

Electrolyte (The Chemical Middle)

• A special liquid or paste between the two terminals
• Contains chemicals that help create the electron flow

• In alkaline batteries, this is often potassium hydroxide

• How Does a Battery Make Electricity?

Here's the cool part! Inside the battery, a chemical reaction happens. This reaction takes electrons from some atoms and adds them to others. The electrons pile up at the negative terminal (anode), creating a crowd of electrons that want to move. But here's the trick: electrons can't travel through the electrolyte to get to the positive terminal. They need an outside path, like a wire! When you connect a wire from the negative terminal to the positive terminal (with something like a light bulb in between), the electrons rush through the wire, creating an electric current that lights up the bulb. According to The Conversation, the chemical reaction inside an alkaline battery moves negatively-charged particles called electrons around to create an electric current, and this reaction produces around 1.5 volts of electricity. Fun Battery Facts

• The first battery was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist. That's why we call the unit of electrical pressure a "volt"!
• A dead battery isn't really "empty" - the chemicals inside have just changed so much that they can't make electricity anymore
• Rechargeable batteries can typically be recharged between 300 and 1,000 times before they wear out

• Car batteries are huge because cars need a lot of power to start the engine!

• AC vs DC Electricity

There are two main types of electricity: Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC). Understanding the difference is important! Figure 2.4   AC/DC illustration (www.centralwires.com) What is DC? Direct current is electricity that always flows in the same direction, like a river flowing downstream. The electrons move from the negative terminal to the positive terminal in one steady stream. ·        According to the Kiddle Encyclopedia, direct current is when electricity always flows in a certain direction, like the flow of a river, and it refers to the flow of electricity obtained from batteries and solar cells. Where do we use DC?

• All batteries (AA, AAA, phone batteries, car batteries)
• Solar panels
• Flashlights
• Toys
• Cell phones and tablets (even though they plug into the wall, they convert AC to DC inside)
• Computers and TVs (they have special parts that change AC from the wall into DC)

What is AC? Alternating current is electricity that constantly switches direction back and forth, like ocean waves moving in and out. The electrons don't flow steadily in one direction; instead, they vibrate back and forth very quickly! ·        According to SparkFun Learn, alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically, and as a result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. Where do we use AC?

• Wall outlets in your home
• Power lines that bring electricity to your house
• Large appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners

• Ceiling lights

• Ohm's Law: The Golden Rule of Electricity and Power

Ohm's Law is one of the most important rules in all of electronics! It was discovered in 1827 by a German scientist named Georg Simon Ohm, and it tells us how voltage, current, and resistance work together. Before we learn Ohm's Law, let's understand what each part means: 1. Voltage (V) - The Push Ø  Measured in Volts (V) Ø  This is the force that pushes electrons through a wire Ø  Think of it like water pressure in a hose Ø  A battery's voltage tells you how hard it pushes electrons Ø  Common voltages: AA battery = 1.5V, Car battery = 12V, Wall outlet = 120V (USA) 2. Current (I) - The Flow Ø  Measured in Amperes or Amps (A) Ø  Current is labelled I as it was initially called “Intensite de courant” meaning current intensity. Ø  This is how many electrons flow past a point each second Ø  Think of it like how much water flows through a hose Ø  One amp is about 6,241,500,000,000,000,000 electrons per second! Ø  Sometimes we use smaller units: milliamps (mA), where 1,000 mA = 1 A 3. Resistance (R) - The Obstacle Ø  Measured in Ohms (Ω) - that's the Greek letter Omega Ø  This is anything that slows down or opposes the flow of electrons Ø  Think of it like a narrow part in a hose that slows the water down Ø  Every material has resistance - even wires! Ø  Light bulbs, heaters, and motors all have resistance  Here's the magic formula that connects all three: V = I × R Or in words: Voltage = Current × Resistance This formula tells us that voltage equals current multiplied by resistance. According to Ducksters, Ohm's law states that the current passing through a conductor is proportional to the voltage over the resistance.

1. What is Power ?

Power is how fast energy is being used or produced. In electricity, we measure power in Watts (W), named after James Watt, a famous Scottish inventor. According to Wikipedia, the watt is the unit of power in the International System of Units, equal to 1 joule per second, and it is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Figure 2.5 : ELectric Power  Think of power this way:

• Energy is like the total amount of work you can do
• Power is how fast you're doing that work

One watt means using one joule of energy every second. In electrical terms, one watt is the power used when one amp of current flows through a circuit with one volt of electrical pressure. The basic formula for electrical power is: P = V × I Or in words: Power = Voltage × Current This tells us that power (in watts) equals voltage (in volts) multiplied by current (in amps).

1. Food battery

Based on our research we figured out that a food battery produces DC current and Voltage. A battery works by producing voltage and current because of the chemical reaction between electrodes and electrolyte which is the food juice or the food itself. Food batteries rely on naturally occurring acids and ions within fruits and vegetables, resulting in much higher internal resistance and lower current delivery.

• What are the best electrodes to choose?

From our book “How to be good at Science”, it states that electrodes are chosen based on the electrochemical potential difference between the anode and cathode electrodes, higher the potential difference the easier the electrons will flow from anode to cathode. Based on our research zinc as anode and copper as cathode came out as the best choice. It is also available easily in stores and they remain stable under food electrolyte chemical reactions. We found that there are other choices we could have used, like Magnesium as Anode, copper as cathode – but magnesium corrodes faster and is also harder to buy. Aluminum and Copper, but they produce less voltage. Aluminum also has high potential to have oxide layer formation. Iron-Copper, again this produces lesser voltage.

• What food items are best candidates for a food battery that is easily available? Why?

The food with an electrolyte must contain ions (charged particles) for electricity to flow. Higher acidic food produces more voltage. More acidity → more H⁺ → stronger zinc–copper chemical reaction → larger electron flow → higher voltage. ·       Apple: pH 3.0 – 4.0 Give less voltage(Mildly acidic; varies by variety and ripeness) ·       Lemon: pH 2.0 – 2.6 gives the most voltage (Highly acidic because of citric acid) ·       Potato: pH 5.4 – 6.0 gives even less voltage (Slightly acidic to near-neutral; varies by type and soil conditions) Our research showed that malic acid and citric acid are the two major organic acid components in Malus species. In cultivated apples, malic acid is the predominantly detectable organic acid, while malic acid and citric acid are the predominant organic acids in wild apple species.  From our research we also found out that other foods like cucumber can produce a lot higher voltage in the 5V range with different electrodes like magnesium, however their application might be limited due to electrode corrosion. Acidity has two main meanings: chemically, it's the quality or degree of being acid, measured on a pH scale A pH of 7 is neutral, while a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic. The term Ph stands for "potential of hydrogen," and it represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H^+) in a liquid. For example, a solution with a pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 4.

1. Potential real life applications for food batteries?

As per eepower.com article the solid phase bacteria powered biobattery has been in testing and could prove to be a low power source for the internet of disposable things. The internet of disposable things  is a phenomenon in which wireless sensors are attached to nearly any type of device in order to provide up to date information via internet, for example a sensor could be attached to a food packaging to monitor the freshness of the food inside, sensors could be used in low power environmental applications for wild fire, crop management and soil condition detection. These could then be designed to have finite life and designed as one time use when they are designed using sustainable and biodegradable batteries to power them. Some of the early studies have indicated  very strong potential for such applications with 100-1000s of hours of sustained power being provided by food based and biodegradable batteries. Disposable Medical Sensors: Another example is where scientists at research institutions have created paper based biodegradable batteries that can be activated by bodily fluids like saliva or sweat. These  batteries can power single use medical sensors that wirelessly send health information to doctors. A single biobattery can produce enough power for disposable sensors that don’t need to be retrieved or removed.

Independent Variables: •Type of food (lemon, apple, potato) • Thermal treatment (unheated vs heated) • Electrode spacing

Dependent Variables: • Voltage (V) • Current (mA) • Power (mW) • Internal resistance (Ω)

Controlled Variables: • Electrode materials (zinc and copper) • Measurement equipment • External load resistance • Electrode insertion depth • Ambient temperature (except heating trials)

In this section an outline of our experimental methods are provided. 1.      Zinc and copper electrodes were cleaned and inserted approximately 3 cm apart and depth of 1 cm into each food sample. 2.      Open-circuit voltage was measured using a digital multimeter.                          s 3.      A 220 Ω resistor was connected in series with the food battery, and current was measured to determine loaded performance of the food battery. 4.      Voltage across the resistor was recorded, and power was calculated using P = V × I 5.      Each measurement was repeated four times for each food type, and averages were calculated. All reported numbers in the presentation are average numbers. 6.      Electrode spacing was reduced from 3 cm to 1 cm and steps 2–6 were repeated. This was done to see if changing electrode distance changed the current and voltage generated  by the food battery. 7.      Food samples were microwaved for 15 seconds, allowed to cool slightly, and steps 2–6 were repeated. 8.      Two food cells were connected in series and tested with an LED beeper, digital clock, and DC motor 9.      Voltage and current were recorded for each load condition, when the food battery was powering LED,beeper, digital clock and DC motor. Power was calculated for each load. 10.  During all the steps voltage, current and power measurements were noted down. 11.  For voltage decay measurements, each battery open circuit voltage was measured over a period of 2 hours every 15 minutes and recorded. 12.  For comparison AAA Battery open circuit voltage was measured and their decay rates over long periods of time  were determined from our background research. Safety and good house keeping rules were followed in all steps. We kept an inventory of all our science experiment materials and put them away in an orderly fashion in a bin after our experimentation. Following safety steps were followed

• Safety goggles were worn when handling metal electrodes and electrical equipment.
• Foods were not consumed after experimental use.
• Microwave heating was conducted under adult supervision.
• Electrical measurements were limited to low voltages and currents, presenting minimal electrical hazard and were also done under adult supervision.
• Strict rules were followed by washing hands after handling the electrodes and electrical components.

Results

In this section we present all our tabulated results and plots. Finding 1: We found that the highest voltage producing food was apple (1.05V), followed by lemon (0.91V) and then potato (0.81 V), this proved that our initial Hypothesis#1 is NOT true. This is most likely because of the variation of electrolyte quality and chemical reactions driving the reactions. Figure 4.1 shows various open circuit voltages measured for the food items, with food items on the Y axis and Voltage (V) on the X axis. Figure 4‑1 Open Circuit Voltage for food items

Finding 2: We produced enough voltage with 2 apples about 2.1 V to light a small LED, digital clock, and a beeper, but we could NOT power the DC motor. As it can be seen from table 4.1. Finding 3: The amount of current produced in a food battery is very low orders of 0.088 mA to 1.1 mA compared to AAA batteries which produce 6.6 mA when powering the DC Motor. This supports finding 2 and shows that food batteries are limited by their high internal resistance. We found in our research that real batteries are engineered to have low internal resistance by controlling the electrolyte composition and hence the chemical reaction. We calculated that highest power delivered by series connected apple was 0.18 Milli Watts and that required by the DC motor is actually 9.9 milli Watts. Our food battery is about 55x weaker in power to run the DC Motor. This is shown in figure 4.2 with food items on the Y axis and Power in milli-Watts (mW) on the Y axis. Table 4.2 shows the measured power values.

Figure 4‑2 Measured Power Produced by food vs AAA Battery

Table 4‑1 Measured Average Voltage and Average Current for Different Food Items

|  
Battery Type | Measured Power ( milli Watt) | Measured Average Voltage (V) | Measured Average Current (I) | | ------------- | ---------------------------- | ---------------------------- | ---------------------------- | | Lemon | 0.082 | 0.92 | 0.09 | | Heated Lemon | 0.204 | 0.85 | 0.245 | | Apple | 0.932 | 1.06 | 0.088 | | Heated Apple | 0.193 | 0.92 | 0.21 | | Potato | 0.0957 | 0.87 | 0.11 | | Boiled Potato | 0.828 | 0.82 | 1.01 | | AAA Battery | 13.746 | 1.74 | 7.9 |

Table 4‑2 Measured Power

Finding 4: Current Produced by the food items increased when they were heated or microwaved. Voltage dropped compared to when they were cold. This Occurred because heat broke down the cell walls released more ions which lowered the internal resistance of the electrolyte in the food. However, heating caused voltage decay because of the possible secondary reaction and gas formation on electrode surface. It was also noted that current measurement was challenging and current dropped drastically after initial increase. The measured current when heated is shown in table 4.1. We also varied the electrode distance from 3 cm to 1 cm  for heated potato and did not find huge change in either the voltage or the current measured, this experiment was only done once as there was very minimal changes. Finding 5: The voltage dropped drastically in food items in the first one hour to a value that is pretty low compared to a standard AAA Battery. After the initial drop the voltage stabilized to a lower value. This is partially because of the variability in the food electrolyte, ability to sustain chemical reactions, polarization and internal chemical losses. The values measured are shown in table 4.3 and plot is shown in figure 4.3 with voltage on the Y axis and time increments on X axis .

Discussion

• Applications

The results from our testing  proved that our initial hypothesis #1 is NOT true, where in we ended up measuring higher open circuit voltage across the apple, followed by lemon and then potato. This is most likely because of the variation of the electrolyte quality and chemical reactions driving the reactions. (HYPOTHESIS 1 Proved In-Correct) From our finding 2 we found out that even though we produced higher voltage, we still couldn’t power the DC motor. This proves that producing higher voltage alone is not enough but we also need current to be higher to do useful work. Power = V x I, in our case we only increased the voltage but current measurements were always low as shown in the plots and tables in results section. (HYPOTHESIS 2 is True) Our findings in 3  supports finding 2 and shows that food batteries are limited by their high internal resistance but could successfully power smaller electronics that needed very low power. We found in our research that real batteries are engineered to have low internal resistance by controlling the electrolyte composition and hence the chemical reaction. Our food battery is about 55x weaker in power to run the DC Motor. (HYPOTHESIS 3 is not always Correct) The finding#4  supports that heating and reduced electrode spacing increase current output by reducing internal resistance. This occurred because heat broke down the cell walls and released more ions which lowered the internal resistance of the electrolyte in the food. However, heating caused voltage decay because of the possible secondary reaction and gas formation on the electrode surface. It was also noted that current measurement was challenging and current dropped drastically after initial increase. Our finding 5 showed the high voltage decay rate in food batteries, which is partially because of the variability in the food electrolyte, ability to sustain chemical reactions, polarization and internal chemical losses.. Food batteries are biodegradable, non-toxic, and constructed from waste materials, making them environmentally sustainable compared to conventional chemical batteries that contain hazardous substances. Although they cannot replace commercial batteries, food batteries an be used for educational purposes. Recent research has demonstrated ultra-low-power sensors capable of operating in the microwatt and nanowatt range and battery-free electronics powered by energy harvesting  While food batteries alone cannot continuously power such devices, they could potentially serve as supplementary or temporary power sources when combined with other sources as hybrid sources. This suggests future applications in biodegradable environmental sensing, educational field experiments, and short-term monitoring systems. A few early research applications of biodegradable bacteria and food powered battery was used for power disposable sensors that could be used to monitor food freshness, temperature and moisture for various monitoring activities.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that lemons, apples, and potatoes can reliably generate electrical voltage using zinc and copper electrodes, but their power output is severely limited by high internal resistance.. However, food batteries successfully powered ultra-low-power electronics such as clocks and LED beepers. These results confirm that food batteries are best suited for educational demonstrations and exploratory sustainable low-power sensing and remote power applications with lot of promise.

• Voltage vs Power 

Food Batteries can produce measurable voltage (0.8-1.1V) but voltage alone does not mean useful Power. Power depends on Voltage and Current, and its ability to last longer.

• Extremely Low Current:

Apple, Lemon and Potato batteries produced very small currents (<0.3 mA), this limited their power due to high internal resistance.

• Why Motor would not run:

Based on our measurements the motor required about 10 milli watt of power, and much higher current to start it. The apple food battery could only supply 0.18 milliwatt when we powered the DC motor and also that would rapidly decay in the first hours. “There is huge potential based on the findings could these biodegradable energy sources be used for powering smart low power sensors that could provide real insights and future work lies in proving them out !” Could this be used as high breed method reducing the carbon footprint, could they be used as environmental monitoring devices?

Food batteries are biodegradable, non-toxic, and constructed from waste materials, making them environmentally sustainable compared to conventional chemical batteries that contain hazardous substances. Although they cannot replace commercial batteries, food batteries an be used for educational purposes. Recent research has demonstrated ultra-low-power sensors capable of operating in the microwatt and nanowatt range and battery-free electronics powered by energy harvesting  While food batteries alone cannot continuously power such devices, they could potentially serve as supplementary or temporary power sources when combined with other sources as hybrid sources. This suggests future applications in biodegradable environmental sensing, educational field experiments, and short-term monitoring systems. A few early research applications of biodegradable bacteria and food powered battery was used for power disposable sensors that could be used to monitor food freshness, temperature and moisture for various monitoring activities.

•Biodegradable electronics: Transient power sources support sensors/implants designed to decompose, reducing e‑waste

•Smart Packaging with Sensors powered by organic means to monitor food quality

•Low Power environmental Monitoring – Low power sensors for potential wild fire monitoring, agricultural yield improvement

•Wastewater to electricity: Microbial fuel cells can treat wastewater while generating electricity and enabling biosensing • •Self‑powered biosensors: Enzymatic biofuel cells are researched to power wearable/implantable biosensors using biochemical fuels.

• Sources of Error and Limitations

• The measurement uncertainty of the multimeter.

• Electrodes are not production grade could have variation.
• Food quality is variable. Variations in fruit ripeness, acidity, and moisture content likely affected electrolyte conductivity.
• Room temperature and measurement conditions could be different.
• The experiment did not include long-term stability testing beyond short discharge periods.
• Electrode surface oxidation may have altered electrode reaction rates.

Citations

General 1.    All About Circuits. (2023). Internal resistance of a battery. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-11/internal-resistance/ 2.    Bockris, J. O’M., & Reddy, A. K. N. (2000). Modern Electrochemistry: Fundamentals of Electrodics. Springer. 3.    Hester, J., & Jacobson, B. (2019). The battery-free internet of things. Proceedings of the IEEE, 106(1), 91–103. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org 4.    Khan, W. T., et al. (2017). Ultra-low power temperature sensor for wireless sensor networks. IEEE Sensors Journal, 17(6), 1689–1696. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org 5.    Scientific American. (2022). Bring science home: Fruit batteries. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-fruit-batteries/ 6.    U.S. Department of Energy. (2023). Battery basics: Electrochemical energy storage. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/battery-basics 7.    How to be Good At Science Engineering and Technology - DK Publishing. 8.    DOE How to Batteries work 9.    Electronics Tutorials for DC Circuit. 10. Internet of Things and smart sensors in agriculture: Scopes and challenges – ScienceDirect 11. Miniaturized wireless sensor enables real-time monitoring of food spoilage | Nature Food 12. pH of Water Definitions - Basic Water Science 101 13. What You Need to Know About Current, Voltage and Resistance   Batteries

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AC and DC Electricity

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Ohm's Law

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Electrical Power

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9. IB Lenhardt - "Watt (W) – Power Formula, Definition, and Use Cases" - Technical reference (https://ib-lenhardt.com/kb/glossary/watt)

Acknowledgements

• Our Mentors at School - Mr H and Ms Fauzia
• Our Science Teachers - Dr. Soares, Ms. Sarah
• To Renert School for giving us an opportunity to participate in CYSF.
• To our Dad - Hemanth for Helping us with the experiments and acting as our mentor. 
• To my mom Pooja  and grandparents for supporting us throughout the experimentation and presentation.