If we use an acid rain simulating solution to test the level of nutrients in soil that is being leached, then potassium would be leached the most because when potassium is exposed to acid rain, many potassium ions are displaced from cation exchange sites. This is also made worse when base ions such as magnesium are leached from the soil.

What is Acid Rain? What causes Acid Rain?

Acid Rain is a broad term for any type of acidic deposition that contains sulphuric or nitric acid. They can come as rain, snow, sleet, fog, hail, and even dust (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). On its way to the ground, however, the sulphuric and nitric acid mix with many living and non-living factors (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). Acid Rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air, creating a chemical reaction between compounds. These can mix with other compounds and elements like oxygen and water that can be found higher in the atmosphere, forming more acidic pollutants which create what is known as Acid Rain (United States Environmental Protection Agency - EPA, n.d.). Acid Rain is caused by a variety of natural and man-made sources that release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. These sources include volcanoes, burning fossil fuels, electric power generators, manufacturing companies, oil refineries, vehicles, or heavy equipment (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).

What effect does acidic soil have on plant growth?

Out of the 17 nutrients needed for plant growth 14 are found in soil, but acid rain hinders the soil's ability to take in these essential nutrients (Gerber, 2022). On lawns, the grass growth is stunted, there are yellow spots on the lawn and the blades wither. Also, many different weeds thrive in acidic soil, which affects the plants that were there in the first place (Gerber, 2022). Acidity in soil decreases the amount of plant nutrients that are crucial for plants but also increases the availability of nutrients that reach extremely toxic levels. Bacteria are also important in soil, but acidic soil degrades their preferred environment, which limits their survival in the acidic soil (Agriculture Victoria, 2024). When plant growth is being restricted, acidity itself isn’t the main problem. What acid rain and acidity do to the soil of plants affect them the most as their biological processes are altered and affected (Agriculture Victoria, 2024). 

How can the soil be helped after it has been hit by Acid Rain?

To neutralize the capabilities of acid rain farmers and foresters use a technique called liming. Liming increases the buffer of soil by adding a buffer such as limestone. This neutralizes the acidity of the soil and adds nutrients the soil requires (Vernier, n.d.). Limestone also makes it easier for water and nutrients to penetrate the soil and be absorbed by plants. Limestone rock naturally contains calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate which increases the alkalinity of soil (Gerber, 2022). These conditions increase the calcium volume in the soil which helps plants thrive and survive. The most commonly used limestone comes as powdered or pelletized. Calcium also adds to the cell wall division of plants which is essential for the plant's overall health and growth (Gerber, 2022). Other than limestone, dolomite is also used as another source of calcium magnesium carbonate. These can be used to raise the pH to the level needed for the specific soil and plants. However, the amount of lime and dolomite may vary as the soils are different around the world. That is just one of the main ways plants and their soil can recover after being hit by acid rain (Queensland Government, 2013).

How does the pH system measure the acidity of soil? What is the average pH of soil?

Soils around the world vary in pH because of climate, amount of rain, etcetera. They can be naturally alkaline, acidic, or neutral, and this can be measured with the pH scale (Queensland Government, 2013). The pH scale actually uses the measure of hydrogen ion concentration, or H+, to come to a singular pH value. But, because there is a vast range of concentration, the acidity increases by 10 when the pH only decreases by 1. This is known as a reverse scale since high pH means low H+, and low pH means high H+ (Queensland Government, 2013). Acid rain has an average pH of 4.2 - 4.4, and rainwater is usually a 6.5. This is because rainwater mixes with many things on its way down to the ground, so the pH does not stay exactly neutral at a pH of 7 (Swallow, Expert). The most common way that soils are classified based on pH is, 6.5 - 7.5 is neutral, over 7.5 is alkaline, below 6.5 is acidic, and below 5.5 is overly acidic. However, because this can range heavily, the “correct” balance or healthy balance is between 5.5 and 7.5 (Queensland Government, 2013).

How does Acid Rain leach the nutrients from the soil? What is the process?

Leaching happens when excess water removes the nutrients from the soil. These water-soluble nutrients are pushed out and below the soil by runoff, drainage, and acid rain (BYJU'S, n.d.). The soil consists of anions and cations which are important in the process of leaching, some cations are Potassium, Magnesium, and Ammonia. Organic matter in soil is negatively charged which attracts the positively charged cations and suspends them in the soil (Swallow, Expert). However, acid rain is also positively charged as it has many hydrogen ions, or H+. This means that the H+ in acid rain is also attracted to the organic matter in the soil and there is plenty more H+ from the acid rain than the other cations. Because of this, the H+ pushes out the nutrients and takes their place in the soil, while those important nutrients are being leached out (Swallow, Expert). Acid Rain can also cause corrosion and rust formation as a chemical reaction with other nutrients and metals found in the soil. Many essential nutrients are eliminated from the soil due to the process of leaching, causing the pH to drop and the soil to become overly acidic. Overall affecting the soil's health, plant growth, and the bacterial species found in the soil (BYJU'S, n.d.).

What effect does Acid Rain have on Potassium in soil? What does Potassium contribute to the soil?

Potassium is a key macronutrient in soil that regulates plants' osmotic balance and enzyme activation. Macronutrients are nutrients that plants need the most in large amounts. There are 9 main macronutrients and potassium is one of the most crucial in plant development (Emerald Lawns, 2015). Potassium is also a key component in stress resistance, and nutrient uptake and is a big part of the photosynthesis process. In addition, potassium contributes to the size, quality, and flavour of many fruits and vegetables. Potassium is a key nutrient for many plants, but when soil is hit by acid rain many potassium ions are displaced from cation exchange sites. The displacement of the potassium ions is also made worse by the leaching of other base cations such as magnesium and calcium. When base cations are leached, the soil becomes more acidic, which ultimately results in reduced potassium availability. When measuring the amount of potassium in soil or the amount in the water that has been leached, parts per million is the usual measurement. On a rough scale, very low (depleted) is below 75 ppm, low (deficient) is 75-100 ppm, medium (adequate) is 101-150 ppm, high (sufficient) is 151-199 ppm and very high (surplus) is 200 ppm and above. That allows us to measure potassium.

What effect does Acid Rain have on Nitrogen in soil? What does Nitrogen contribute to the soil? 

Nitrogen is fundamental for amino acids as well as protein synthesis. Additionally, nitrogen is a large component of ATP and a key part of a plant's DNA that allows cells to grow and eventually reproduce. Nitrogen also impacts key parts of a plant such as chlorophyll, metabolism, and the structure of plant growth. Without nitrogen, plants can’t grow taller and start turning yellow (Soil Science Society of America, n.d.). Increased acidity in soil can enhance the nitrification process, leading to losing nitrogen as nitrate. Alterations in nitrogen availability can also lead to nutrient imbalances in ecosystems. This can affect soil microbial communities and plant growth. If we are to measure nitrogen in soil or water, we would use parts per million. A rough scale of measurements would be, very low (depleted) at below 5 ppm, low (deficient) at 5-15 ppm, medium (adequate) at 16-25 ppm, high (sufficient) at 26-40 ppm and very high (surplus) at above 40 ppm. But, the amount of nitrogen will change depending on the plant and soil.

What effect does Acid Rain have on Magnesium in soil? What does Magnesium contribute to the soil?

Magnesium, like potassium, is also a key component in photosynthesis as well as, enzyme functions and is an essential nutrient in chlorophyll. Magnesium also plays a part in soil structure and pH buffering, This allows other nutrients to be more accessible to plants, and the pH of the soil to be balanced out. On top of that, magnesium is also a key part of the Cation exchange, contributing to the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). This helps the soil’s ability to hold positively charged ions (cations), and retain nutrients such as calcium and potassium (Swallow, Expert). Similar to potassium, magnesium can also be leached from the soil when hit by acid rain. Acidification also decreases the CEC, which leads to lower magnesium retention and higher losses due to leaching. Though it is challenging for the CEC to be altered, it still can due to acid rain having cations which replace the cations the soil needs. The essential nutrients are replaced and pushed out (Brown & Lemon, n.d.). Also, magnesium deficiency in acidic soils can result in leaf chlorosis and reduced plant growth, particularly in sensitive species. Lastly, to measure magnesium you would use parts per million. Very low (depleted) is below 50 ppm, low (deficient) is 50-100 ppm, Medium (adequate) is 101-150 ppm, high (sufficient) is 151-200 ppm and very high (surplus) is above 200 ppm. This would be a reference scale on magnesium measurements.

What effect does Acid Rain have on Iron in soil? What does Iron contribute to the soil?

Iron is a vital micronutrient that is necessary for chlorophyll synthesis and many metabolic processes within plants. Micronutrients are essential nutrients like macronutrients, but are only needed in very small amounts. There are seven micronutrients found in soil and Iron is one of the important ones that impact plant development and growth (Saskatchewan, n.d.). Iron is an important part of maintaining the structure and function of chloroplast. In addition, within ecosystems iron affects and dictates where different plant species would be able to grow (Sahoo & Rout, 2015). Acidic downpours may lead to increased iron solubility in soil, which may seem beneficial initially. Though, excessive acidity in soil can lead to the leaching of iron from soil, reducing the iron availability over time. Prolonged exposure to acidic conditions can create iron-deficient conditions, impairing plant growth and leading to chlorosis. But if iron were to be measured, we would use parts per million. Very low (depleted) is below 2 ppm, low (deficient) is 2-5 ppm, medium (adequate) is 6-15 ppm, high (sufficient) is 16-30 ppm and very high (surplus) is above 30 ppm. This would tell us how much iron was affected. In conclusion, when exposed to high acidic conditions, iron is more soluble in soil which can be beneficial, but if exposed to these conditions for too long, there can be negative effects to iron within the soil.

 What effect does Acid Rain have on Phosphorus in soil? What does Phosphorus contribute to the soil?

Phosphorus is an essential part of energy transfer and photosynthesis in plants. Phosphorus is crucial for cell division and the development of growing near the tip of the plant (NSW Government, n.d.). When there is a deficiency of phosphorus in the soil, plants may be delayed in maturity, have stunted growth, as well as restricted energy use (United States Department of Agriculture, n.d.). Phosphorus availability is influenced by acidic downpours by changing soil pH and chemical forms of present phosphorus. These lower pH levels influence the phosphorus by making it precipitate as non soluble aluminum and iron phosphates, these phosphates are much less available for plant uptake. Phosphorus availability is also affected when soil acidity increases, and the microbial processes for phosphorus mineralization are disrupted. That is how phosphorus is used and affected by acid rain, but if we wanted to measure the amount of phosphorus, we would use a reference scale for parts per million. For example, very low (depleted) is below 5 ppm, low (deficient) is 5-10 ppm, medium (adequate) is 11-15 ppm, high (sufficient) is 16-25 ppm and very high (surplus) is 26 ppm and above. This is not an exact scale but is helpful when estimating.

Manipulated Variables: The solution used (Acidic Solution and Distilled Water) and the different nutrients being tested

Responding Variable: The amount of each nutrient being leached from the soil

Controlled Variables: The amount of soil, type of soil, amount of acidic solution, amount of distilled water solution, amount of time for the leaching process

Constant: The distilled water solution tests

Materials

• Test Kits (NPK)
• Test Strips (Iron)
• Test Strips (Magnesium)
• 2 Litre Distilled Water
• Bottle for Acid Rain Simulating Solution
• Measuring Cups
• Mixing Spoon
• pH Strips
• 2 Molar Sulphuric Acid
• Soil Sample (From Ground)
• 6 Beakers
• 6 Coffee Filters
• 6 Rubber Bands
• PPE (Goggles and Gloves)
• Permanent Marker
• Tape

Procedure

1. Put on and wear your PPE (Goggles and Gloves)
2. In 2 bottles, split the 2L of distilled water so there is 1L in each bottle
3. Put a piece of tape on each container, labeling one Plain Distilled Water, and the other Acid Rain Solution with permanent marker
4. In the Acid Rain Solution bottle, add 0.25ml of sulphuric acid in the 1L of distilled water and mix 
5. Test the solution pH with pH strips and add more sulphuric acid if needed to have a pH of 4 - 5
6. Put a piece of tape on each of the 6 beakers, and using a permanent marker, label 3 of the containers Acid Rain Solution, and 3 Plain Distilled Water
7. Apply a coffee filter over each container and place a rubber band over each of the 6 containers
8. Place the soil equally into each beaker on top of the coffee filter
9. Pour 120ml (½ a cup) of the Acid Rain Solution equally on each of the 3 containers of soil
10. Allow the mixture to settle and filter out for about 10 minutes before testing the nutrient
11. Test the solution with each nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Iron) specific test kits/strips, follow the instructions on the test kits/strips to make sure you use them properly and receive accurate results
12. Record data and observations on the process down on a piece of paper
13. Repeat 3 times with the same solution
14. Repeat Steps 8-13 replacing the Acid Rain Solution with Distilled Water

Main Acid Rain Solution Observations (All Tests)

• After draining through the soil, the soil became murky and unclear
• No soil went through the coffee filter

Acid Rain Solution Observations Test 1

Magnesium Observations

• 120 ppm
• A small amount of magnesium was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 3 mg/3 ppm
• A small amount of iron was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the off white tip

Acid Rain Solution Observations Test 1

Nitrogen Observations:

• N1 Deficient/10 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Murky, almost opaque

Phosphorus Observations:

• P2 Adequate/13 ppm
• Some was leached
• Murky, translucent

Potassium Observations:

• K4 Surplus/200 ppm
• A lot was leached
• Translucent, not very murky

Acid Rain Solution Observations Test 2

Magnesium Observations

• 120 ppm
• A small amount of magnesium was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 3 mg/3 ppm
• A small amount of iron was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the off white tip

Acid Rain Solution Observations Test 2

Nitrogen Observations:

• N1 Deficient/10 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Translucent, slightly yellow

Phosphorus Observations:

• P2 Adequate/13 ppm
• Some was leached
• Murky, almost opaque

Potassium Observations:

• K3 Sufficient/170 ppm
• Decent amount leached
• Translucent in the kit

Acid Rain Solution Observation Test 3

Magnesium Observations

• 120 ppm
• A small amount of magnesium was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 3 mg/3 ppm
• A small amount of iron was leached from the soil
• Did not change much
• The strip with the off white tip

Acid Rain Solution Observations Test 3

Nitrogen Observations:

• N1 Deficient/10 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Translucent, slightly yellow

Phosphorus Observations:

• P2 Adequate/13 ppm
• Some was leached
• Murky, almost opaque

Potassium Observations:

• K4 Surplus/200 ppm
• A lot was leached
• Translucent, almost clear

Main Distilled Water Observations (All Tests)

• After draining through the soil, the water stayed quite clear
• No soil went through the coffee filter

Distilled Water Observations Test 1

Magnesium Observations

• 0 ppm
• No magnesium was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 0 mg/0 ppm
• No iron was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the off white tip

Distilled Water Observations Test 1

Nitrogen Observations:

• N0 Depleted/3 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Phosphorus Observations:

• P0 Depleted/3 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent, slightly blue

Potassium Observations:

• K1 Deficient/80 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Translucent, almost clear

Distilled Water Observations Test 2

Magnesium Observations

• 0 ppm
• No magnesium was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 0 mg/0 ppm
• No iron was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the off white tip

Distilled Water Observations Test 2

Nitrogen Observations:

• N0 Depleted/3 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent, slightly yellow

Phosphorus Observations:

• P1 Deficient/7 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Potassium Observations:

• K1 Deficient/80 ppm
• Very little was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Distilled Water Observations Test 3

Magnesium Observations

• 0 ppm
• No magnesium was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the blue tip

Iron Observations

• 0 mg/0 ppm
• No iron was leached from the soil
• Nothing changed
• The strip with the off white tip

Distilled Water Observations Test 3

Nitrogen Observations:

• N0 Depleted/3 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Phosphorus Observations:

• P0 Depleted/3 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Potassium Observations:

• K0 Depleted/30 ppm
• Nothing was leached
• Translucent in the kit

Acid Rain Solution Tests

	Magnesium (ppm)	Iron (ppm/mg)	Nitrogen (ppm)	Phosphorus (ppm)	Potassium (ppm)
Test 1	120	3	N1 deficient 10	P2 adequate 13	K4 surplus 200
Test 2	120	3	N1 deficient 10	P2 adequate 13	K3 sufficient 170
Test 3	120	3	N1 deficient 10	P2 adequate 13	K4 surplus 200

 

Distilled Water Tests

	Magnesium (ppm)	Iron (ppm/mg)	Nitrogen (ppm)	Phosphorus (ppm)	Potassium (ppm)
Test 1	0	0	N0 depleted 3	P0 depleted 3	K1 deficient 80
Test 2	0	0	N0 depleted 3	P1 deficient 7	K1 deficient 80
Test 3	0	0	N0 depleted 3	P0 depleted 3	K0 depleted 30

 

 

 

After testing the nutrients in both tests, they all leached the most in the Acid Rain Solution tests. Each nutrient leached a different amount which gave us a variety of data on how they act when exposed to acid rain. First of all, potassium leached the most with a surplus amount in test one and three at 200 ppm, and leached slightly less in test two at 170 ppm. In a close second was magnesium, which stayed consistent in all three tests by leaching 120 ppm every time. Then there is phosphorus and nitrogen, which leached 13 ppm in each test and 10 ppm in each test. These two came in third and fourth and leached only a little compared to the significant amount from magnesium and potassium. Lastly, there is iron. Iron leached the least amount out of the five nutrients tested, which is extremely minor compared to every other nutrient. Only 3 ppm was leached in every test by iron and it is also the least susceptible to acid rain. In the end, potassium is the most susceptible to acid rain and leached the most in each test. However, that doesn’t mean other nutrients we didn’t test aren’t also impacted by acid rain.

The results from the Distilled Water tests allowed us to really compare which nutrients are most affected by Acid Rain. Like the Acid Rain Solution test, potassium leached the most at 80 ppm in the first two tests and 30 ppm in the third test. Even though potassium leached the most in both types of tests, its overall amount leached is still greater with this taken into account. Next, we have phosphorus which leached 3 ppm and 7 ppm in its three tests and nitrogen that was consistent at 3 ppm each time. Then we have magnesium and iron that both leached 0 ppm in all three tests. Taking all the data into consideration, every nutrient leached more in the Acid Rain Solution tests than the Distilled Water tests. Other than the test kits and strips telling us the nutrients were affected by Acid Rain, there were visible signs in the liquid leached out of the soil. For example, in the Acid Rain Solution tests, the liquid became slightly murky and unclear after being leached from the soil. In contrast, the Distilled Water test liquid was still clear and didn’t change in color. This shows us that when lots of nutrients are leached from the soil, the liquid is unclear. 

In conclusion, our hypothesis that potassium is leached the most was correct.

Based on the amount of each nutrient leached, measured in parts per million (ppm), potassium was leached the most in the Acid Rain Solution and Distilled Water tests. Although it leached 80 ppm and 30 ppm in the Distilled Water tests, the result from the Acid Rain Solution tests remains greater when accounting for that difference. The final amounts leached from all tests are 140 ppm and 120 ppm, slightly more than magnesium, which leached 120 ppm across all tests. This also supports our hypothesis because magnesium, as the base ion, was significantly leached, indicating that potassium would also be significantly leached. On the other hand, nitrogen, phosphorus and iron only leached between 0 and 13 ppm in both types of tests, which is minimal compared to potassium and magnesium. Ultimately, potassium was the nutrient most affected by acid rain, leaching the largest amount from the soil.

The results from this experiment showcase which nutrients are most depleted within the soil after being hit by acid rain. The relation is that farmers, gardeners, or any individual having acidic soil knows that the nutrients potassium and magnesium are the most susceptible. Knowing this, individuals can focus on replenishing those two nutrients, even though all nutrients should still be replenished. Potassium is leached the most and also experiences the most harm by acid rain when magnesium is also leached from the soil. To have a proper as well as healthy soil environment for an individual's plants, this experiment really shows how the nutrients are impacted, allowing us to find ways to restore them. Potassium would be the most important nutrient to replenish, as well as magnesium because they are ones that support plant nutrient intake as well as key components of a good harvest. Other nutrient components would be affected less, but for top quality and healthy soil, should still be taken into account. The targeted area of land that would need these replenishments of nutrients would be the area along Eastern Canada including Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador. This affects over 4 million square kilometres of Canadian soil. 

Our experiment also highlights the true effect of acid rain on soil. Many people around the world do not realize how big of an impact this has on our crops as well as ecosystems. By leaching these nutrients as shown in our experiment, it highlights the impact and amount that a single and quick downpour can have on the soil. The amount of potassium that is leached is truly crucial, since potassium is a key nutrient needed for successful plant growth. This can also be seen on a slightly smaller scale for all the other types of nutrients that were depleted due to acid rain. With the depletion of potassium specifically farmers could expect their harvests to be less in size, flavour, as well as quality. Also, the loss of magnesium from soil can affect a plants ability to absorb other nutrients since magnesium affects soil structure and ph levels. All together, each nutrient does something important for plants and soil, making them all the more crucial when taking care of gardens and crops. The places that are most impacted by acid rain are Eastern Europe, Southeast Canada, The United States, China, as well as India.

These countries that suffer from the harsh conditions of acidic downpours will face crises such as famines. Famines are a huge issue worldwide that takes about 9 million lives yearly, half of these deaths being from China. Some of these deadly famines could be prevented with proper precautions taken to protect crops from acid rain. For example, farmers could apply fertilizers that focus on replenishing lost nutrients (ie. potassium). To help with the acidity of soil, calcium carbonate and other limestone products could be applied on the soil to prevent further damage. About 27% of the global workforce are employed in agriculture (about 873 million). Acid rain doesn’t directly affect crops but it causes negative impacts within the soil that causes the damage. An example of this is the US losing about 111 billion USD over a few decades due to acid rain’s effect on soil impacting forests and crops. This largely hit 2 main industries, the agricultural sector and the construction/materials industry which later affected other industries like real estate. Due to the increasing effect of acid rain to soil, many studies have suggested that about 24% of yields of crops would be lost worldwide by 2050. This would cause a minimum loss of 312 billion USD annually, and that's only the agricultural side of things. Our results on how to replenish soil could benefit many globally saving both lives and billions of dollars.

Sources of Error

Some things that could have or did impact our experiment were:

• We were not able to have each nutrient tested by the same type of test, magnesium and iron were tested by test strips, while nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were tested by test kits
• Not all of the nutrients had the same measurement system, magnesium used ppm, iron used mg, but nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium used a depleted to surplus system
• With our school, we were only allowed to use 2 molar sulphuric acid, which made it harder to create our solution because we cannot get less than 0.25 ml of the acid with the type of dropper
• Our acid solution could have been less acidic and a higher pH than a 4 because we could not get an exactly accurate amount of our 2 molar sulphuric acid
• The coffee filters used for the leaching could have filtered out some of the nutrients, meaning there could have been more or less of each

Next Steps and Next Questions

From this experiment, we can take away that potassium is the most affected by acid rain within soil. Experiments based on this one could include seeing the effects of soil that has been hit by acid rain on plant growth. Next time, we could also look into more ions and specific ions such as calcium and other base ions. Based on these nutrient results, some other questions expanding on this topic could be:

• How does the environment a plant is in affect its reaction to acid rain?
• Which types of plants are most affected by acid rain? (berries, roots, trees, shrubs)
• Which plants are affected most by the depletion of potassium? (or other specific nutrients)
• How are base ions in soil affected by acid rain? (or other specific ions)
• What is the best way to replenish potassium levels within soil?

• Discussion with Dr. Swallow, an expert at Mount Royal (Swallow, Expert)

 

• United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). What is Acid Rain? | US EPA. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain

 

• United States Environmental Protection Agency - EPA. (n.d.). What causes Acid Rain? Acid Rain Students Site: What causes acid rain? Retrieved from https://www3.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/whatcauses.html

 

• Agriculture Victoria. (2024, October 14). Soil acidity | Soil | Farm management. Agriculture Victoria. Retrieved from https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/farm-management/soil/soil-acidity

 

• Gerber, B. (2022, April 18). 4 Signs of Acidic Soil (Low pH). Learning Center. Retrieved from https://blog.greenmeadowlawncare.com/4-signs-of-acidic-soil 

 

• Vernier. (n.d.). Soil and Acid Rain. Vernier Science Education. Retrieved from https://www.vernier.com/experiment/esv-8_soil-and-acid-rain/

 

• Queensland Government. (2013, September 24). Soil pH | Environment, land and water. Queensland Government. Retrieved from https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-properties/ph-levels

 

• BYJU'S. (n.d.). Leaching Meaning - Definition, Types, Advantages and Disadvantages of Leaching. BYJU'S. Retrieved from https://byjus.com/chemistry/leaching/

 

• NSW Government. (n.d.). Why phosphorus is important. NSW Department of Primary Industries. Retrieved from https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils/more-information/improvement/phosphorous

 

• United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Soil Phosphorus. Inherent Factors Affecting Soil Phosphorus. Retrieved from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-10/Soil%20Phosphorus.pdf

 

• Soil Science Society of America. (n.d.). Nitrogen Cycle. Soils 4 Teachers. Retrieved from https://www.soils4teachers.org/nitrogen-cycle/

 

• Sahoo, S., & Rout, G. R. (2015). Role of Iron in Plant Growth and Metabolism. J STAGE. Retrieved from https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ras/3/0/3_1/_article#:~:text=It%20serves%20as%20a%20%20component,of%20chloroplast%20structure%20and%20function.

 

• Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Micronutrients in Crop Production | Soils, Fertility and Nutrients. Government of Saskatchewan. Retrieved from https://www.saskatchewan.ca/business/agriculture-natural-resources-and-industry/agribusiness-farmers-and-ranchers/crops-and-irrigation/soils-fertility-and-nutrients/micronutrients-in-crop-production

 

• Emerald Lawns. (2015, February 17). Macronutrients and Micronutrients for the Soil. Emerald Lawns. Retrieved from https://emeraldlawns.com/blog/macronutrients-micronutrients-soil

 

• Brown, K., & Lemon, J. (n.d.). Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity | Fact Sheets | soilquality.org.au. Soil Quality. Retrieved from https://www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/cation-exchange-capacity

First of all, we would like to acknowledge Ms Burkell, our science fair teacher and coordinator. She supported us along the way, gave us constructive feedback which allowed us to improve our project, was there when we needed help and got us in touch with an expert in the field. Next, we would like to thank the expert Professor Swallow from Mount Royal University. He took time out of his day to talk to us about soil science and Acid Rain which allowed us to gain a deeper understanding of the topic. Lastly, we would like to thank our biggest supporters, our parents. They never doubted us in making it to CYSF and were always there when we had questions or needed help.

Thank you everyone for being a part of this project and believing in us!